This term paper was researched and written by Amy
Proni (now Amy Ranger) for
the
course
ILS-538, Computer-mediated communication, taught by Dr. E. Sierpe,
Southern
Connecticut State University, Spring, 2005. Assignment:
The purpose of this assignment is to give you the opportunity to
explore an area of CMC and CMC research. The area will be entirely of
your choice. There are no restrictions on the characteristics of the
area chosen as long as it pertains to CMC, our field, or the
application of CMC technologies to the dissemination of information.
The possibilities are almost infinite. You do not have to concentrate
on CMC problems related to libraries in the traditional sense.
The Term Paper will be developed during the entire
academic session. At the end of our course you should have a well
structured paper. Your paper should give its intended audience a clear
understanding of the area of interest as well as insights on the issues
that have been explored.
Term paper An investigation of the confluence of technology,
computer-mediated communication, and distance learning
Abstract
This paper discusses the confluence of technological innovation,
computer-mediated communication, and the World Wide Web as a virtual
place where individuals may pursue distance and life-long learning.
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to explore the confluence of
computer-mediated communication (CMC) and technology with distance
learning and lifelong learning. The effects of this learning
environment on individuals and implications for continuing education
will be discussed.
Background Part 1. Education
There was a time in American society when a person’s destiny was
dictated by biology and a strict adherence to social constructs. Formal
education ended for most people early in life. The phrase “distance
education” might have referred to boarding school, but the concept as
it is today did not exist. Over the course of two hundred years the
United States evolved from one of a rural/agrarian culture to that of
an industrial/technological superpower; education in the country
evolved as well, from an elite system to one of mass higher education.
(Goodyear, 1998). Compulsory education laws were enacted, beginning
with Massachusetts in 1852; by 1918 all of the states mandated
education for children. (Novello, 1998). Early distance learning
programs were correspondence courses based on an exchange of printed
materials via the postal service. Later programs used interactive
radio, sometimes in conjunction with broadcast television, or
video-recordings and CD-ROMs. As defined by the United States Distance
Learning Association (USDLA), distance education is an “education
program whereby students may complete all or part of an educational
program in a geographical location apart from the institution hosting
the program; the final award given is equivalent in standard and
content to an award program completed on campus.” (USDLA, 2005). The
Association also defines distance learning as “The acquisition of
Knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction,
encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at a
distance.” (USDLA, 2005).
Distance modes have empowered students to determine
when, where, and how they study and so have freed them from the
constraints of face-to-face instruction. (Wells, 1992). “It is
understood that modern telecommunications, computers, and innovative
software can greatly enhance the educational capabilities of the
broadcasting technologies. Courses on the Web can be offered
asynchronously, enabling people in remote areas or with busy schedules
to take them from any location and at convenient times. Professionals
can upgrade their skills or learn new ones without committing to a
formal program in fixed classrooms. However, it has not yet been
demonstrated, for the currently available technologies, that they can
be effectively used under all conditions for all students.” (Niederman
& Rollier, 2000, p. 59). In other words, a variety of distance
learning options does not mean that each option works equally well for
every learner.
Part 2. Technology & communications
Communications in19th century America, primarily
based on written words or symbols (such as by semaphore), were
transmitted via personal messenger, rudimentary postal service, other
delivery service, or line-of-sight. (USPS, 2005; Fang and Ross, 1996).
The development of the telegraph, then the telephone, followed by the
broadcast media of radio and television, were the beginning of a
revolution in communications. The development of computers for
government, military, and scientific applications in the mid-20th
century served as a catalyst for a true transformation of
communications technologies. Personal computers (PCs), which were
introduced to the American public in the mid-1970s, quickly became a
necessity in the business environment, spreading from there to the
classroom and the home environments. Electronic mail (e-mail),
developed “in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing
mainframe computer to communicate” (Wikipedia, 2005) took
communications to an entirely new level through the use of the
internet, a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks that
transmits electronic data. E-mail is essentially a message sent from
one computer to another, using specialized software, over standard
telephone lines, high-speed data lines, cable television, or via
satellite. Like the computer, e-mail and the internet were also
developed primarily for government and research. E-mail was the killer
app (a colloquial expression meaning “prominent or essential [software]
application”) that truly changed how people communicate with each
other. The development of the World Wide Web (known simply as the web)
and Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) further fueled societal
transformations evidenced by the sense of living in a global community.
The web is a virtual space accessed through the internet with an
electronic device such as a personal computer (PC), personal digital
assistant (PDA), telephone or cellular phone, and specialized browser
software. HTML is a simple but powerful computer language used to
describe web pages (also called web sites) and is the main interface
language to the web. (Stewart, 2005). The brief messages that had been
popularized by e-mail in the 1960s were precursors to a universal
dialect utilizing abbreviated words, phrases, and acronyms in the 21st
century. The specialized language associated with e-mail is also useful
for text-messaging and instant-messaging (IM) which can be done on a
PC, PDA, or cell phone. When viewed in context, the potent mixture of
innovations in technology and communications enabled computer-mediated
communications to become a major force for change in the 21st century.
An overview of lifelong and distance learning
“Every individual must be in a position to keep learning throughout his
life. The idea of Lifelong education is the keystone of the learning
society.” (Faure, 1972). Learning and education today are not limited
to pre-specified times and places. People realized that a formal
education would not be enough to provide all of the knowledge and
skills that necessary to succeed in the new knowledge economy.
(Sharples, Corlett, & Westmancott, 2002). That realization,
combined with the emergence of new learning styles and technologies led
to the development in the late 20th century of hybrid subjects and
courses and the evolution of new paradigms regarding knowledge
production. This in turn caused academic institutions to reinvent
themselves in an effort to meet the needs of a continually expanding
market. (Scott, 2005). Four dominant sub-systems that co-evolved with
education are information technology, communication systems, the
economics of the market place, and cultural forces. Information
technology, using ever more powerful communication systems, transformed
the educational process from a place-and-time-bound set of interactions
to a fluid and virtual environment where students are as likely to
participate from within a home or office as from within the traditional
academic building. Policy makers now must consider the high cost of
institutional infrastructures such as administrative overhead, academic
costs, student services, and facility maintenance. The emergence of
continuous learning, resulting in fluid career choices, coupled with a
global and continuing information explosion, are but two of the
cultural forces that threaten the status quo. (Achleitner, Vowell,
& Wyatt, 1998).
The technologies necessary to support lifelong learning are many and
varied. It is not enough for an individual to have access to a computer
that is connected to the internet and the web. Individuals must also
have access to technologies that are portable – or at least available
at a time and place when the user is ready to learn. The supporting
technologies must also be individual and adaptable to the learners’
abilities, knowledge and learning style, and designed to support
personal learning. Ideally they will be unobtrusive or seamless
allowing the learner to focus on learning and not just on technologies.
They must be widely available and persistent. A lifelong learner needs
to access the accumulated resources and knowledge despite technological
changes. The burden of dealing with multiple computers, operating
systems, storage media, and formats is challenging for even
technically-minded individuals. It is overwhelming for those who are
“computer-challenged,” are techno-phobic, or have minimal technological
expertise. Finally, innovative technologies that support lifelong
learning must be useful and easy to use—suitable to meet everyday needs
of communication, reference, work, and learning. (Sharples, Corlett,
& Westmancott, 2002, p. 223). Given the rate of change and
development in computers and integrated electronics since 1975 one can
only hope that the exponential growth and innovations witnessed so far
will continue, and that truly intelligent machines are just around the
corner.
It is important that discussions on the influence of computer-mediated
communication also take into account certain contextual factors, as the
type of technology employed by a learner will impact the experience.
These contextual factors include the channel (e-mail or website) and
mode of communication employed (text, graphics, multi-media, or a
combination); the type and number of participants (male or female,
young or old; one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many); the length
(long-term or brief) and nature of the relationships of the individuals
(personal or professional). Other factors that must be considered are
the topic (course work, research, personal interactions) and purpose of
the exchange (academic, private, or commercial); whether it is
synchronous (occurring in real-time) or asynchronous (delayed or
sequential, but not in real-time); whether it is public or private
(interpersonal, small group, or mass communication) and moderated or
unmoderated; and, finally, the attitude of the participants towards CMC
(enthused or skeptical, committed or disinterested) and length of time
they have been doing it (novice or experienced). (Thurlow, Lengel,
& Tomic, 2004). A distance learning class may include individuals
subject to any or all of those contextual factors. For these and other
reasons, an instructor must be technologically competent, patient, and
aware that the students are vulnerable to a host of factors that could
adversely impact their learning.
Distance education gains acceptance by Americans
“The rapid growth in numbers of distance education courses and programs
continues to have a profound impact on the ideas and beliefs that
encompass teaching and learning. The use of e-mail and the Internet,
coupled with Web-based coursework, has become a core method of
instruction, particularly in higher education. The number of students
enrolled, course offerings, and the availability of distance education
as a reliable method of instruction gained tremendous momentum during
the last decade.” (Derrick, 2003, p. 6). It is accepted as a fact of
life that Americans do everything on the run: from shortened vacations
to fast food, there is a sense that multi-tasking and doing things as
quickly as possible is both effective and preferred. This attitude is
reflected in the marketplace, where there is a constant demand for
greater computing power, improved software, and faster online
connections. Consumers have come to believe that Moore’s Law, an
empirical observation that the rate of technological development on the
complexity of integrated circuits increases exponentially every 18
months, (attributed to Gordon E. Moore) (Wikipedia, 2005b) applies to
everything, and not only to the semiconductor industry.
According to a recent survey by the Pew Internet & American Life
Project of 2,201 adults (aged 18 and over), 81% of the people between
the ages of 18 to 29, and 78% of those aged 30 to 49 go online on a
typical day. (Pew, 2005). On an average day, 77 million American adults
go online; some 58% of them have internet access at home. About 2% of
those 77 million adults go online to take a class online just for
personal enjoyment or enrichment, and 2% will take a class online for
credit toward a degree of some kind. (Pew, 2005b). Two percent may not
seem like a significant number, but the National Center for Education
Statistics published similar information in 2004: “course enrollments
in distance education have increased from 1.7 million to 3.1 million
between 1997-98 and 2000-01 at both undergraduate and graduate levels.
The growth of course enrollments at public 2-year institutions is
particularly notable. In 1997-98, public 2- and 4-year institutions
each had approximately 710,000 enrollments in distance education
courses. In 2000-01, enrollments at public 2-year institutions rose to
nearly 1.5 million, compared with 945,000 at public 4-year
institutions. By 2000-01, about half of all course enrollments in
distance education courses were at public 2-year colleges.” (Wirt et
al., 2004, p. 79). The demand for distance learning that is fast, easy
and cheap (in spite of the fact that these are concepts which are most
definitely in conflict with reality) will likely increase, if for no
other reason than the “cool factor” that seems to be associated with
all things related to the internet or web. This argument follows the
logic of the “Technology Acceptance Model,” which suggests that users
will be influenced by a number of factors on how and when they will use
new software presented to them, including its perceived usefulness and
perceived ease-of-use. (Wikipedia, 2004). As more individuals perceive
the value of distance education, more will embrace it. The technologies
associated with CMC and distance learning are still very much in their
infancy and can be expected to evolve considerably over the next
decade. Estimates from the United States Department of Education
indicate that about 9 percent (between 14.5 and 16 million persons) of
the resident population (ages 18 to 64) in the year 2000 were enrolled
in postsecondary education. (U.S.D.o.E., 2005). The fact that more than
three million Americans were enrolled in distance learning courses in
2004 indicates that distance education is perceived as valuable by a
significant percentage of the population, and not only by the early
adopters of technology.
A complicated experience for instructors and students
Contrary to the traditional mode of stand-up-in-front-and-talk,
teachers in classrooms using communication technology often find a
dramatic change in classroom dynamics. An essential spirit of
collaboration between teacher and learner in the computer classroom
means that the teacher also becomes the learner. The emphasis on
process (exploration, evaluation, collaboration, discussion,
reflection, and formulation of individual and shared meanings) requires
that teachers participate as learners alongside students. (Thurlow,
Lengel, & Tomic, 2004). This is an important aspect of the
constructivist view of learning: that learning is a collaborative
process based on prior knowledge, wherein the instructor acts as a
mentor or guide. Prior educational experiences are unlikely to prepare
students for this new type of learner-centered setting, in which the
responsibility for success is squarely on the shoulders of the student.
The reality is that students involved in distance learning must be
active participants and prepared to take personal responsibility for
their role in the learning process. The value of computer-mediated
instruction for today’s adult learners must be evaluated by considering
basic questions about the teaching and learning process. (Muirhead,
2000). Students who fail to explore the nature of distance education
may also find it difficult to complete a graduate-level program. In
general, teaching and learning are thought of as inherently social
endeavors. The absence of face-to-face contact with professors and
classmates can be a concern for learners, and rightly so: it means that
the computer-mediated communication style of learning is less than
ideal for those who tend to be more verbal than textual, or who possess
oral/aural learning styles. (Bird, 2004). Some students may be
intimidated by the communication styles exhibited by their peers, or
feel inadequate with regard to life experiences or topic knowledge.
Some instructors are unable to provide consistent, timely, and relevant
feedback, creating a situation reminiscent of the ‘sound of one hand
clapping.’ The online learning environment necessitates all
participants work together, significantly more so than in a traditional
learning environment. “Because I consider myself a lifelong learner, I
decided I needed the experience of learning through CMC… I made
arrangements, worked through the computer complexities and technical
problems, and found myself in a ‘virtual classroom.’ Having managed to
arrive at the level of doctoral student and having taught at both high
school and university levels, I feel I am quite familiar with the world
of the classroom. However, I was not prepared for what transpired
during those 13 weeks in that virtual classroom: my learning style and
conceptual framework were challenged, and my pedagogical paradigm given
a good shake.” (Bird, 2004, p. [253]).
The experience of this author is similar in that the specific
challenges associated with online learning were unexpected. The effort
of searching and finding relevant information for assignments has been
quite difficult. Some professors seem reluctant to state precisely what
they want, so that the student must then set to work as a
mind-reader. The coursework in the majority of courses taken in pursuit
of a master’s degree in library science has been overwhelming. Lest the
reader think that distance learning has been dry and dull, it should be
stated that the program has included moments of humor. One professor’s
comments on a paper proposing an instructional design were written in
capital letters (the CMC equivalent of shouting, which is considered to
be rather rude). He indicated that if the proposed plan were
implemented perhaps as many as half of the students for whom the
instruction had been designed would be overlooked, because the plan did
not include all possible combinations of students, learning styles, and
learning needs. Oh, the irony of it all! Very few instructional design
proposals are able to meet the needs of all learners at all times, and
that includes distance education.
Interactions and patterns of engagement
And yet, for other students the level of discourse within online
classrooms is as good or better than what may be experienced in a
traditional setting. Reasons for this are primarily traceable to the
asychronicity of CMC, which allows students to consult and incorporate
outside resource materials into their response; reflect at leisure
before responding; and participate anytime, twenty-four hours a day,
seven days a week. In fact, the accessibility of the online environment
can facilitate and sustain a level of intensity that is rarely achieved
in face-to-face classes. (Wells, 1992). The freedom to participate in
class at a time of day that is most convenient for the learner is
routinely mentioned as one of the most positive aspects of asynchronous
learning. For courses in which both time and space separate students
from each other and from the instructor, electronic discussion boards
often provide the main forum for class discussion. A candidate for a
master’s degree in business communication says “It’s a place a teacher
can post a series of topics for discussion. At your own leisure, you go
to the site and write a response. Your classmates also write responses.
You comment on their responses, they comment on yours, and you have a
real back-and-forth dialog.” (Mariani, 2001). Discussion boards also
allow students to seek aid. When one student had trouble getting her
computer programs to compile for a class in data structures, she turned
to her school’s discussion board and to e-mail. “I posted to a new
discussion group, and people responded, saying they were having the
same problems.” Suggestions were offered in this venue, and some
classmates followed up with e-mail messages. (Mariani, 2001). Studies
have shown that there are significant relationships between classroom
community and perceived cognitive learning. (Rovai, 2002). The formats
utilized in distance learning have the potential to support that sense
of community.
Social presence, conceptualized from the theory of knowledge as
socially-constructed, refers to the degree of interpersonal awareness
found in an online environment. Computer-mediated communication
possesses limited social presence and is therefore perceived as an
impersonal medium because it is unable to provide ‘social context
cues.’ By connecting with others in new social situations we create a
social presence or degree of interpersonal contact. The challenge in
online learning environments is facilitating this degree of
interpersonal contact with the instructor and other participants.
(Aragon, 2003). Perhaps the most compelling argument for the necessity
of social presence is its perception as a spark that transforms
alpha-numeric characters on the computer screen into a real person. An
environment lacking in social presence can feel impersonal to the
participants, resulting in a reduced amount of interaction. In a
face-to-face classroom, lack of participation can be attributed to
diverse factors, including shyness, apathy, personality or cultural
style. An online course that is at once experiential and reflective
presents a difficult learning environment for students who are
accustomed to the myriad non-verbal cues and group dynamics of a
traditional classroom environment. The virtual classroom does not allow
for an easy resolution of issues with communications. (Davis &
Ralph, 2001). And though it may seem to be counterintuitive, there is a
case to be made for a ‘lean’ communications medium: it is useful when
breaking bad news to people, for example, or as a means of hiding
nervousness through impersonal but professional e-mail messages.
Participants are forced to slow down by the very nature of the
media—especially asynchronous CMC—which enables them to take the time
to compose messages more thoughtfully. (Thurlow, Lengel, & Tomic,
2004).
Research by Mike Davis and Sue Ralph on the levels of participation in
an online course indicated that while there was enthusiasm for CMC
among the learners and instructors, the environment was difficult to
manage and participation levels were disappointing. A subsequent course
the next semester with many of the same students was more successful.
In that course, the increased activity level was attributed to a more
structured environment and task, the necessity of meeting a course
deadline, and an increased confidence in the use of the technology.
(Davis & Ralph, 2001). Student participation is highly dependent
upon a number of factors. There are a different ways to measure
engagement in cyberspace, from hits on the server to the number of
words written. In the study by Davis & Ralph, comments made during
the evaluation phase of the course indicated that students who in
face-to-face environments would be quiet observers became active
participants and intense followers of the arguments and unfolding
debates in the online course. One woman admitted that she found it
difficult to speak out in a group, but during the course she made the
most contributions, most hits on the server, and wrote more words than
anyone else. In contrast, a man working as a television presenter who
is generally a very confident speaker stated unequivocally that he
preferred the face-to-face mode of communicating, because it was there
that he felt he would be in control of his messages and how they would
be received. (Davis & Ralph, 2001).
Paradoxically, few qualitative research studies on student satisfaction
with CMC distance education have been performed (Hara & Kling,
1999). That in itself renders it difficult to fully evaluate the
effectiveness of distance education: there may be anecdotal knowledge
regarding individual experiences with distance education and learning,
but not definitive data. This reflects the difficulty associated with
fully implementing new modes of learning: how can the experience be
refined or improved without answers to the at-present unasked
questions?
Lifelong learning and education at mid-life
No consensus between economists, sociologists, career-guidance
professionals, or other labor market observers has been reached
concerning the relevant and appropriate criteria that should be used
for defining careers and career changes; as a result, there are no
reliable statistics or estimates on the number of times people change
careers in the course of their lives. (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2005). Even so, the conventional wisdom suggests
that the workforce of today requires that workers must adapt to rapidly
evolving demands for new knowledge, skills, and competencies, (many of
which were not anticipated during their formal education), and
therefore must develop competent information technology skills, both as
an end goal and as a means for other learning. (Kirby et al., 2002). As
aging baby-boomers retire, the effects on the overall economy and on
certain occupations and industries will be substantial, creating a need
for younger workers to fill the vacated jobs, many of which require
relatively high levels of skill. (Dohm, 2000). “Organizational success
in the 21st Century will surely require an emphasis on lifelong
learning. Throughout the world there is an increasing mismatch between
the level of education being attained by the majority of the population
and the needs of employers.” (Neiderman & Rollier, 2000, p. 57).
The intersection of lifelong learning and distance education provides
opportunities for individuals to learn for the pleasure of learning,
and not only for reasons of economy. Self-directed learning may be
guided by attributes such as initiative, resourcefulness, and
persistence—qualities valued by organizations that rely upon innovation
and a vibrant workforce. Distance- and e-learning have the capacity to
influence worker productivity and performance, attributes that directly
affect the economic growth of business and industry. Skills and
expertise needed for the future will require workers who are
learning-oriented; online learning opportunities will be a catalyst for
sweeping changes in the structure of the workplace environment and the
workforce. Well-designed distance learning should not be viewed as
correspondence courses because the environment is the medium and not
the outcome. Traditional course curricula, however, are not easily
transferred to a distance learning platform. The goals and the
objectives of the course should remain constant, but the delivery must
be suited to the medium. (Derrick, 2003). The pressure on instructors
is quite significantand at the same time, students must realize that
the workload of online courses will be much more substantial than that
of a traditional learning environment.
By choosing distance learning via computer-mediated communication, a
middle-age student will have the opportunity to experience learning as
a journey, in which the end result is secondary to the process. As
learners develop an understanding of their capacities for learning—any
learning—they are fundamentally changed with regard to their personal
view of their capabilities and competence. The learning reinforces
beliefs and supports successful behaviors for lifelong and sustained
learning. (Derrick, 2003).
Senior citizens and CMC
Handheld camcorders, digital cameras, cell phones, portable music
devices (MP3 players) and PDAs (personal data assistants) are among the
myriad electronic devices enjoyed by Americans in the early 21st
century. Senior citizens have not been entirely left behind in this
digital revolution: according to a survey of 22,610,000 householders
aged 65 and older, 6,344,000 (28.1%) have access to a computer in the
home; 5,329,000 (23.6%) use the Internet at home (U.S. Census Bureau,
2001). A related survey provides information on the purpose of Internet
use by seniors: the killer app for most (87.1%) of those interviewed
was e-mail; 61.7% access information on products or services; 32.1%
purchase products or services; 29.3% play online games; 1.5% take an
online course. Not surprisingly, older people who own computers and go
online are also more likely to participate in adult education programs.
The level of formal education and socioeconomic status of senior
learners, as well as their gender (male users predominate), are also
important factors. Many older adults, particularly those who live more
than 50 miles from their families, were willing to try out electronic
communication because they were not able to get together face to face
as frequently as they would like, and they wanted to be involved in the
lives of their children even at a distance. (Timmerman, 1998).
It stands to reason however that a large majority of older adults at
this time are not early adopters of new technologies, and have not
learned how to use computers. However, one may speculate that older
adults will be willing to use them once their value has been
demonstrated. A SeniorNet study (Adler, 1996) found that the use of
high-tech products historically considered “cutting edge” was almost as
high among these older Americans as among the general population. Among
the respondents, 89 percent owned a microwave oven, 74 percent owned a
VCR, and 62 percent subscribed to cable TV. The longer the product has
been available, the more likely it is that older Americans will
incorporate it into their lives. (Timmerman, 1998).
A variety of courses designed for senior learners, and information
about lifelong learning, are available online, through organizations
like SeniorNet, the AARP, PBS Campus, and local libraries. Good courses
employ a non-threatening teaching methodology and self-paced
instruction. Once older learners master the basics of computer use,
they become empowered and are eager to use the technology. The virtual
classroom has great potential to attract older computer users and meet
their needs both for growth and for socialization; this is particularly
true for those people who are homebound due to physical disabilities,
who are caring for others at home and find it difficult to attend
classes, or who want to participate in night-time activities but do not
drive at night. (Timmerman, 1998).
Conclusions
Rapid technological change and societal needs have coalesced in recent
years to allow lifelong learning to become both a necessity and a
reality for millions of people. Simultaneously, the perception of
distance learning by the general public has moved from a state of low
status to one of acceptance, with increased confidence as its methods
are adopted across education as a whole. Distance education has evolved
from an essentially modernist form of education based first upon
printed matter and postal service, followed by television or radio
broadcasting and two-way radiotelephone feedback, into a post-modernist
phenomenon using multimedia technologies and computer-mediated
communication “with a focus on the student as consumer, on
�flexibility, and on global reach.” (Rumble, 2001, p. 31). The
possibility now exists for learners of all ages to engage in informal
and serendipitous learning, driven by general interest and curiosity
rather than just career incentives. (Flew, 2002). The era of
computer-mediated communication as a force for change in distance and
lifelong learning has just begun.
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